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rajibray Reactions of chiral molecules : Chiral molecules react with the reagents in a variety of ways, and accordingly, reactions are classified as follows: Reactions where bonds with the chiral center are not broken. Reactions leading to generation of chiral center. Reactions of chiral compounds with optically active reagents. Reactions where bonds with the chiral center … Read more
A racemic modification, also known as a racemate, is a mixture of (+) and (–) enantiomers in a 1:1 ratio. When equal amounts of enantiomers are combined together, the rotation induced by one isomer’s molecule is perfectly neutralized by an equal and opposite rotation caused by its enantiomer’s molecule. As a result, the racemate’s overall … Read more
The nomenclature of optical isomers: The d/l system was developed by Fischer and Rosanoff around 1900. Totally arbitrarily, (+) glyceraldehyde was defined as being D because the OH group attached to the C2 is on the right-hand side of the molecule. While (–) glyceraldehyde was defined as L because the OH group is on the … Read more
In all respects, a chiral object is not identical (i.e. non-superimposable). The mirror image of an achiral object is identical (and so superimposable). There is a “handedness” to chiral things. Chiral things come in pairs, like gloves or shoes, with a right and a left. Achiral objects, like a regular round ball, do not have … Read more
When multiple stereocenters present in a molecule create an internal plane of symmetry, it leads to meso compounds. Tartaric acid contains two asymmetric centers, which give rise to four configurations. But there are really only three stereoisomers of tartaric acid: a pair of chiral molecules (enantiomers of each other) and the achiral meso compound. In … Read more
Cardiovascular system The Conduction System of the Heart: The heart is a muscular organ the size of a closed fist that is positioned in the chest behind the sternum and above the diaphragm, between the lungs. It is encased in the pericardium. The aorta, pulmonary arteries and veins, and the vena cava are all connected … Read more
Atherosclerosis (or arteriosclerotic vascular disease) is a condition where the arteries become narrowed and hardened due to an excessive buildup of plaque around the artery wall. Plaque is made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. Over time, plaque hardens and narrows arteries. The disease disrupts the flow of blood … Read more
The healing of skin wounds provides a classical example of the combination of regeneration and repair. Wound healing can be accomplished in one of the following two ways: (i) Healing by first intention (ii) Healing by second intention (i) Healing by first intention: One of the simplest examples of wound repair is the healing of … Read more
Injury to tissue may result in cell death and tissue destruction. Healing, on the other hand, is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and function. The process of healing involves two distinct processes: Regeneration: When healing takes place by the proliferation of parenchymal cells and usually results in complete … Read more
Inflammatory Mediators The inflammatory response is intensified and propagated by biochemical mediators generated during inflammation. These mediators are water-soluble, diffusible compounds with local and systemic effects. Complement and complement-derived peptides, as well as kinins, are plasma-derived mediators. Complement-derived peptides (C3a, C3b, and C5a) increase vascular permeability, cause smooth muscle contraction, activate leukocytes, and trigger mast-cell … Read more